The Historical Culture of Death
By Christopher John Williams
This is an article that
explores
the various human responses
to death and belief in the afterlife.
Ancient Greece
I have good
hopes that
something remains for the dead, as has been the belief from time
immemorial,
and something much better for the good than for the bad. Socrates spoke
these words before taking the poison that dispatched him from the world
of the living to that of the dead. This phrase captures
humankind's
timeless endeavor to rationalize death. It touches upon basic tenants
that
are universal, death is not an end but a new beginning, that we have
inherited
our beliefs and attitudes about death from our ancestors and our
behavior
while living has a relationship to how our spirits will be received on
the other side. Socrates lived at a time when Athens reached its
height of historical and cultural influence; Historians define this era
as the Classical period (479b.c. to 323b.c.). The total time
frame
defined by Ancient Greece spans from 900 b.c. to 31b.c. This article
will
attempt to highlight the diverse behavior of the Greek dead and their
interaction
with the living.
Some of the earliest
Greek perceptions
of the dead can be summarized as being impotent. The soul or psyche
immediately
after death simply flew away from the body to the underworld or House
of
Hades (Hades was the God of the underworld and the Underworld referred
to as his house, this was latter shortened to Hades to mean not only
the
God but also the place). The House of Hades was far removed and was not
easily traversable by the living wanting to enter or the dead wanting
to
get out. Here the soul existed in a state that was a pitiful reflection
of their earthly appearance. They retained a recognizable resemblance
to
their living forms but lacked any sensibility. Best described as shades
or shadows they wandered aimlessly about the underworld squeaking like
bats and unaware of activities amongst the living. Interaction with the
dead was occasionally sought out by the living in order to obtain
information
or prediction of some future event. This is an interesting contrast
that
the dead was witless but processed powers of insight. The living had to
travel to the Underworld and in order to revive the spirit from its
Zombie
state it had to be revived with blood. They were incapable of
communicating
until they drank blood. Once refreshed with this symbolic ingredient of
life they were able to provide the needed information. The only
indication
of the spirit remaining amongst the living was when the recently dead
were
not given a proper burial. Funerary rites were considered a
prerequisite
for admission to the underworld and once there it was forever. However
over time this attitude would change and the dead would take a more
active
and interactive role.
Great people as well as
the
commoner could expect the same treatment in the underworld, however
this
concept began to change in the 8th century BC. Greeks began to
deal
with the fact that certain people during their lifetime displayed
greater
vitality and likewise achieved notoriety, i.e. self-sacrifice,
leadership
or bravery. This philosophy also espoused that attributes of the
spirit while living were carried to the other side. This lead to the
formation
of hero cults. Shrines were erected for the worship of
heroes
and their tombs often contain votive material that could be used on the
other side or was an attempt to win favor and assistance from the hero.
This indicated an important change in the Greek concept. The House of
Hades
became ethically stratified and its boundaries permeable. The very good
received a place of honor and could continue doing good deeds for the
living.
Eventually the idea that the malevolent retained their mortal character
and could harass or harm the mortal world became prevalent and varied.
Now the creative cat
was out
of the bag and this belief system opened the door to a plethora of
attitudes
that explained natural, psychological and spiritual occurrences that
were
beyond the understanding of the ancient mind. Ghosts became an
intricate
component of everyday life. They were everywhere and willing to
interfere
on behalf or against the living based on homage paid to them, their
personality
and their experiences in life and death. Earlier belief, as
stated
above, implied that those who were not given proper burial lingered
between
the two worlds. This was expanded to include that the burial rites
alone
was not enough. The living had an obligation to respect and honor the
deceased.
It was assumed that the dead could linger in and around their tombs.
Descendants
who wanted to guarantee the happiness and to avert the ire of these
spirits
placed a mixture of milk, honey, wine, or oil on the grave, analogous
to
our tradition of placing flowers. Occasionally this was supplied by
inserting
a feeding tube into the grave and pouring the mixture into it.
Paying respect and
averting
dead became ritualized by society. The assumption was that the dead was
envious of the living and was more likely to attack when there was a
celebration
or festival. The Anthesteria was a three-day festival celebrating
renewal
and abundance and it was believed that at this time the dead wandered
freely.
As a precaution against ghosts attacks doorways were covered in pitch
and
buckthorn was chewed. On the last day of the Anthesteria a sacrifice
was
made to Hermes (commonly known as the messenger of the gods, he also
held
the distinction of being the guide of the dead) to secure his
cooperation
in returning the dead back to the underworld. Genesia, was a ritual
performed
for deceased parents by their children to please and honor them. This
was
similar to our Memorial Day. The graves of ancestors were
visited,
libations and sacrifices were made in an attempt to appease or control
dangerous spirits. There was also a belief that to honor ancestors
allowed
one to ask them to bless marriages and ensure the conception of
children.
Another way in which
the dead
was asked to assist was in the form of cursing others. The god Hades
ruled
the underworld. Hecate, Hermes and Perseophone were also underworld
deities
that had special control over the dead. These were the Gods the living
appealed to in order to carry out a specific curse. The process of
delivering
a curse was to write instructions on a tablet and insert it in a
recently
occupied grave. The curses ranged from striking an orator dumb to an
endless
harassment of a family or an act of vengeance on a love interest that
rejected
the cursor. The role the dead played was two fold. First
they
were the messengers that carried the curse to the specific deity as
indicated
on the curse tablet. This deity was then expected to ensure that the
dead
performed their second role as agents to execute the curse. It was
believed
that those who died violently, by suicide or unexpectedly would carry
out
their duties with more verve due to the unhappy circumstances of their
departure from this world.
Special categories of
dead were
developed. A common image that each variety shared was; they departed
before
their time and they were especially vindictive and angry. Murder
victims
had the notable feature of being very angry and haunted those who did
not
avenge their deaths and/or their murderers. The murderers themselves
could
be counted amongst the unquiet dead, denied access to a peaceful rest
due
to their shameful act. Those convicted of murder and executed by the
state
had their corpses dumped naked outside the city. This not being a
proper
burial the spirit was trapped between the two worlds and condemned to
endless
wandering. The rural roads became particularly frightening places for
ancient
travelers.
Suicides were treated
according
to the reasons for the act. The act of suicide could be perceived
as an act of valor or an act one was compelled to do by the state.
These
spirits would be rewarded or at least treated as equal to the regular
dead
in the afterlife. It could also be a shameful, selfish or
cowardly
act. These unfortunate spirits had to wander between worlds or were
punished
in the underworld. One story that reflects the Greek attitude is
that of Erigone. She is a maiden whose father and brother die. The are
the only ones who could arrange her marriage. Driven by her sad state
of
being unmarried and with no hope of ever being married she commits
suicide.
She becomes a wandering and vindictive spirit who is able to inflict
unmarried
girls with the mad desire to kill themselves thus perpetuating her
anguish
onto others. This may have also served as a tale to encourage women to
marry before its to late.
One recurrent theme,
that seems
to guarantee that the spirit would be malevolent and condemned to
wandering
amongst the living, is that of the untimely death. The idea is that a
person
has to fulfill what nature or fate has designed for them. This attitude
is gender neutral in regards to murder and suicide, however, there was
the added assumption that women were intended to marry, have children
and
raise them. If this process were interrupted by death it would
undoubtedly
result in an unhappy ghost. These ghosts were especially intent on
attacking
women before marriage, during pregnancy or postpartum. This was a
particularly
vengeful act to deny women their societal obligation as wives and
mothers.
Another way in which these spirits took revenge was attacking the
children;
this was a round about way to deprive women of achieving their purpose
in life. Considering the dangers of pregnancy and infant mortality at
this
time it is understandable that this was blamed on the supernatural.
Humankind inevitably
has to
deal with death. It is obviously inescapable. The way in which
the
survivors rationalize this natural process is varied and complex. The
purpose
of this article is to point out one cultural response to death and the
attempts to control it. From our point in time we can view these as
superstitious,
cruel, creative or insightful. It provides us an intriguing comparison
to our own prolific attitude towards death and life. Ultimately it is a
portrait of society's hopes and fears in regards to what awaits us on
our
final journey.
